Flax and Hemp: From Ancient Crops to Modern Composite Materials

Introduction

Walk through almost any town or city in Europe and you are likely to encounter flax or hemp without realising it. Linen clothing, insulation materials, speciality papers and, increasingly, lightweight engineering products all originate from two crops that have been cultivated for thousands of years.

Long before synthetic materials existed, flax (Linum usitatissimum) and hemp (Cannabis sativa) were among Europe's most important industrial crops. They supplied the fibres used to make clothing, ropes, sails, fishing nets, paper and countless everyday products. Entire regional economies developed around their cultivation and processing, linking agriculture, manufacturing and international trade.

Figure 1. Hemp rope displayed at the Corderie Royale, Rochefort, France. Before synthetic fibres became widely available, hemp rope was one of Europe’s most important engineering materials. Photo: Ji-Elle, Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 3.0).

Today, these crops are attracting renewed attention. As Europe seeks to reduce dependence on fossil-based resources, strengthen regional supply chains and accelerate the transition towards a bio-based economy, flax and hemp are once again being recognised as valuable industrial raw materials (European Commission, 2018). At the same time, engineers are rediscovering that many of the properties that made these fibres useful centuries ago - low weight, strength, durability and versatility- are equally relevant in modern applications. Combined with advances in fibre processing and manufacturing, flax and hemp are increasingly finding their way into products ranging from bio-based construction materials to lightweight natural fibre composites (Faruk et al., 2012; Baley et al., 2021).

Figure 2. Flax fibre composite aircraft cowling developed for AeroDelft, illustrating how natural fibres are now being applied in lightweight engineering structures. Image: AeroDelft

Understanding why these fibres are becoming relevant again requires looking beyond composite materials alone. Their story starts in the field, continues through centuries of agriculture and manufacturing, and today is entering a new chapter in engineering.

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Key takeaways

• Flax and hemp are Europe’s two most important bast fibre crops and have been used in industry for thousands of years.

• Today, they are increasingly used as reinforcement materials for lightweight composite structures.

• The performance of natural fibre composites depends not only on the fibres themselves, but also on processing, material selection and product design.

• Building European value chains is essential for scaling the use of flax and hemp in engineering applications.

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Contents

1. Introduction

2. Key Takaways

3. The Fibres that Built Europe

4. Engineering by Nature

5. From Plant to Product

6. Natural Fibre Composites

7. Beyond Materials: Building European Value Chains

8. Looking Ahead

9. Frequently Asked Questions

10. References

The Fibres that Built Europe

Few crops have shaped European industry as profoundly as flax and hemp.

Flax is one of the oldest domesticated fibre crops known to humanity. Archaeological evidence shows that it was already cultivated during the Neolithic period, and for centuries linen remained one of Europe's most important textiles (Zohary et al., 2012). Before cotton became widely available, linen was used for everything from clothing and household fabrics to sailcloth, sacks and industrial textiles.

The success of flax was no coincidence. The cool maritime climate of north-western Europe, particularly in present-day France, Belgium and the Netherlands, provides ideal growing conditions for producing long, fine fibres. Moderate temperatures, regular rainfall and fertile soils allow the plant to develop fibres of exceptional quality. Over centuries, these regions built extensive expertise in cultivation, retting, spinning and weaving that continues today. In fact, France, Belgium and the Netherlands still produce the vast majority of the world's premium long flax fibres (Alliance for European Flax-Linen & Hemp, formerly CELC, 2024).

Figure 3. Historic flax processing illustrates that fibre quality has always depended on careful processing, a principle that remains equally important for today’s technical materials. Photo: Collection of the Museum of Industry Gent

Hemp developed a different reputation. Rather than fine textiles, its exceptionally strong and durable fibres made it indispensable for ropes, rigging, fishing nets and canvas. During the Age of Sail, merchant vessels and naval ships relied heavily on hemp for ropes, rigging and sailcloth. A single ship required kilometres of rope, making hemp one of the strategic raw materials that supported European trade and maritime expansion (Clarke & Merlin, 2013).

These crops represented far more than agricultural products. They supported regional value chains in which farmers, fibre processors, mills, manufacturers and merchants were closely connected. That position weakened with the rise of cotton, followed in the twentieth century by synthetic materials such as nylon, polyester and glass fibre, which offered greater consistency and could be produced at much larger scale (Baley et al., 2021)

Flax and Hemp: From Ancient Crops to Modern Engineering Materials | Eve Reverse

Figure 4. Flowering flax fields in Normandy, France. The maritime climate of north-western Europe provides ideal conditions for producing high-quality fibre flax. - Photo: Stanzilla / Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 3.0)

Linen gradually became a premium textile rather than a dominant everyday material, while hemp largely disappeared from mainstream manufacturing. Today, flax accounts for only a small share of global fibre production, but both crops remain in use. Linen is valued for its comfort and durability, while hemp is still used in speciality papers, horticulture, insulation and bio-based construction materials. More recently, both fibres have attracted renewed attention in technical applications where their low density, stiffness and vibration damping can offer advantages over conventional materials (Textile Exchange, 2025; Baley et al., 2021).

The shift from traditional textile fibres to modern engineering materials is a key part of the renewed interest in flax and hemp. To understand how fibres once used for linen and rope can reinforce composite materials, it helps to start with the structure of the plants themselves.

Engineering by Nature

The reason flax and hemp are interesting engineering materials is closely related to the way their stems are constructed.

Both plants need to remain upright while still being flexible enough to withstand wind, rain and repeated movement. They achieve this through long bast fibre bundles located in the outer region of the stem. These fibres help support the plant without making it completely rigid.

Figure 5 shows this hierarchical structure for flax, but the same basic principle also applies to hemp.

Starting at the plant level, the flax stem (4) consists of an outer bast region (5) surrounding the inner wood or xylem (6). The bast contains the bast fibre bundles (3) that are extracted for textiles and technical applications.

Each bundle consists of many elementary fibres (2) held together by naturally occurring substances such as pectin and hemicellulose. Within the cell walls of these elementary fibres are cellulose microfibrils (1), which provide much of the stiffness and strength.

Hemp has a comparable structure, with bast fibre bundles arranged around a woody inner core. The exact dimensions, fibre fineness and organisation differ between the two plants, but both obtain their useful technical fibres from the same part of the stem.

This hierarchical structure - from cellulose microfibril to elementary fibre, fibre bundle and complete stem- helps explain why flax and hemp combine low density with favourable specific mechanical properties (Faruk et al., 2012).

Figure 5. Schematic anatomy of a flax stem. Image: Adapted from Diagram of the flax stem and fibres, Wikimedia Commons. Author: LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal).

Among commercially available natural fibres, flax generally exhibits one of the highest specific stiffnesses and tensile strengths. Combined with a density of approximately 1.4–1.5 g/cm³ - considerably lower than that of glass fibre - it offers an attractive stiffness-to-weight ratio. Flax is also well known for its excellent vibration damping, making it particularly suitable for products where comfort, acoustics or dynamic behaviour are important (Baley et al., 2021).

Hemp shares many of these characteristics while often providing a favourable balance between stiffness, strength and toughness. The practical differences between flax and hemp depend strongly on the plant variety, growing conditions, fibre extraction method and reinforcement architecture. In practice, the choice between the two is rarely a question of which material is better, but rather which material is better suited to the application (Bourmaud et al., 2019).

Unlike synthetic fibres, however, flax and hemp are biological materials. Their mechanical properties are influenced by climate, soil conditions, harvesting, retting and fibre extraction. Managing this natural variability remains one of the key challenges in engineering with plant fibres and highlights the importance of consistent processing and quality control (Baley et al., 2020).

The fibre itself is only one part of the solution. The performance of a finished component also depends on fibre orientation, textile architecture, matrix selection, manufacturing method and structural design. Our overview of natural fibre composite materials explains the reinforcement, resin and material options available for different applications.

From Plant to Product

Flax and hemp each have their own characteristics. Flax is known for producing fine, uniform fibres that have been valued for centuries in linen textiles and are now widely used in technical reinforcements.

Hemp generally produces more biomass and higher fibre yields per hectare, making it attractive for a broad range of industrial applications. The exact properties and yields depend on the crop variety, growing conditions and processing route (Manian et al., 2021).

After harvesting, the stems undergo retting, a biological process in which moisture and microorganisms help loosen the fibre bundles from the woody core of the plant. The fibres are then mechanically extracted, cleaned and prepared for further processing. The quality of retting and extraction has a significant influence on fibre cleanliness, consistency and mechanical performance (Manian et al., 2021; Réquilé et al., 2021).

Figure 6. From field to finished part: how flax and hemp stems become natural fibre composite products.

Traditionally, flax and hemp processing was developed mainly around textile production. The fibres were refined, spun into yarn and woven into fabric. This route is well suited to clothing, linen, rope and canvas, but technical applications do not always require the same number of processing steps (Manian et al., 2021).

For some products, the fibres can be converted more directly into aligned reinforcements, nonwoven materials or other semi-finished products. Avoiding unnecessary textile steps can simplify production, reduce fibre losses and lower processing costs. It can also reduce energy use and associated emissions, although these benefits depend on the processing route and must be assessed for the complete material system. Studies of technical flax textiles show that fibre transformation and electricity use can contribute significantly to their environmental impact (Gomez-Campos et al., 2021).

Figure 7. Examples of semi-finished flax and hemp reinforcement products used in composite manufacturing, illustrating how fibre architecture varies with the intended application. Photo: Eve Reverse

At Eve Reverse, this is called the shortest plant-to-product route: designing the shortest practical processing route between the crop and the final application.

One example of this approach is Eve Tile, a natural fibre composite material developed to demonstrate how flax and hemp can be converted into practical engineering materials using a short and efficient processing route. Rather than following a traditional textile pathway, the material is designed specifically for composite manufacturing, reducing unnecessary processing steps while maintaining the performance required for technical applications.

Figure 8. Eve Tile demonstrates how flax and hemp fibres can be converted into practical composite materials using a short plant-to-product processing route. Photo: Eve Reverse

The way the fibres are processed has a major influence on final performance. A woven fabric behaves differently from randomly oriented fibres or fibres aligned in one direction. Fibre length, orientation and reinforcement structure therefore need to be matched to the product and manufacturing process. Research on flax composites confirms that fibre architecture and processing strongly affect the extent to which the properties of the fibres are transferred to the finished composite (Yan et al., 2014; Baley et al., 2021).

Natural Fibre Composites

One of the most important technical applications for flax and hemp is in natural fibre composites.

A composite combines reinforcing fibres with a matrix, usually a polymer. The fibres provide stiffness and strength, while the matrix holds them together, transfers loads and protects them from mechanical damage and environmental exposure (Faruk et al., 2012).

Glass fibre remains the standard reinforcement for many lightweight composite structures, while carbon fibre is used where very high stiffness and low weight are required. Flax and hemp are not intended to replace these materials in every application. Instead, they add another option, with a different balance of performance, weight, cost and environmental impact.

Their low density is one of their main advantages. Flax and hemp composites can also provide good vibration damping and acoustic performance, which makes them particularly interesting for products where comfort, noise reduction or tactile quality matter alongside structural performance.

Experimental studies have found higher vibration damping in natural-fibre-reinforced composites than in comparable glass-fibre systems (Hadiji et al., 2020).

There are also limitations. Moisture sensitivity, natural variability and long-term durability must be considered during product development. The choice of resin, manufacturing process, component design and protective finish can therefore be just as important as the choice of fibre. Moisture uptake can affect dimensional stability and mechanical properties, particularly when natural fibre composites are used in humid or outdoor environments (Scida et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2022).

Today, flax and hemp composites are used in automotive interior panels, furniture, sports equipment, consumer products, architectural elements and other lightweight applications. Their use is particularly established in products where low weight, damping and appearance are important, while research continues into more demanding structural applications (Yan et al., 2014; Baley et al., 2021).

Figure 9. Flax fibre composites combine lightweight construction with excellent vibration damping, making them suitable for applications such as loudspeaker enclosures. Photo and product: Eve Reverse.

The most relevant question is not whether flax or hemp should replace conventional materials. It is where these fibres offer the greatest value. This requires the material, manufacturing route and product design to be considered together, from early feasibility and composite product development through to material testing and validation.

Beyond Materials: Building European Value Chains

The future of flax and hemp depends on more than the fibres themselves. It also depends on the value chain that connects cultivation, fibre processing, material development and manufacturing.

Europe already has many of the capabilities required to build such a value chain, but they are spread across different countries and organisations. France, Belgium and the Netherlands have strong positions in flax cultivation and processing, while Germany has extensive experience in industrial manufacturing, machinery and composite applications. These capabilities are complementary rather than competing.

Cross-border collaboration is therefore an important part of developing natural fibre materials at scale. It allows growers, processors, material producers and product developers to combine their expertise instead of each organisation trying to build the entire value chain independently.

The Interreg Vlaanderen–Nederland Hemp2Comp project is one example of this approach. The project brings together partners from Flanders and the Netherlands to develop a regional value chain for hemp fibre composites. Its activities cover multiple stages, including hemp cultivation, fibre processing, bio-based resins, composite production, product development and end-of-life solutions. By connecting agricultural, research and industrial expertise, Hemp2Comp aims to create practical applications and a more stable market for locally grown fibre hemp.

Figure 10. The Hemp2Comp project illustrates how cross-border collaboration helps connect different parts of the European natural fibre value chain, bringing together expertise from cultivation and fibre processing to material development and composite applications. Photo: Hemp2Comp / Interred Vlaanderen–Nederland.

The partnership between FUSE Composite in Germany and Eve Reverse in the Netherlands provides another, more focused example. FUSE develops and produces natural fibre semi-finished materials using hemp from European cultivation. Eve Reverse contributes composite processing knowledge, material evaluation and product development expertise, with a particular focus on shortening the route from plant to product.

These collaborations are important because no single organisation controls every step in the chain. Fibre quality depends on cultivation and extraction. Material performance depends on how the fibre is converted into a semi-finished product. Commercial success depends on whether that material can be processed reliably and offers clear value in the final application.

Growing interest in bio-based materials is creating more opportunities for these collaborations. As demand increases, investment in cultivation, fibre processing and material production becomes more viable. In turn, improved availability and consistency make it easier for manufacturers to consider flax and hemp in new applications.

The Dutch National Approach to Bio-based Building (Nationale Aanpak Biobased Bouwen) is one example of a programme designed to stimulate this development. By connecting farmers, processors, manufacturers and end users, it aims to create stronger markets for crops such as flax, hemp, miscanthus and straw. Although the programme primarily focuses on construction, the cultivation and processing capacity it supports can also benefit other sectors that use technical natural fibres (Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations et al., 2023).

Europe's opportunity is therefore not limited to growing more fibre crops. It lies in connecting the expertise that already exists across borders and using it to create reliable, efficient and economically viable routes from crop to finished product.

Looking Ahead

Flax and hemp are not replacements for every conventional material. Glass fibre, carbon fibre, metals and engineering plastics will remain the most suitable choices in many applications.

Natural fibres provide an additional option. Their low density, vibration damping, appearance and renewable origin can offer advantages where these properties match the requirements of the product.

The challenge is therefore not simply to use more flax or hemp. It is to understand where they create the most value and to develop the processing routes, materials and products needed to realise that value.

Future progress will depend on cooperation throughout the chain: between farmers and fibre processors, between material producers and manufacturers, and between companies in different European countries. The individual capabilities already exist. The opportunity lies in connecting them.

No single material is the answer to every engineering challenge. The better approach is to select the right material, process and supply chain for the right application.

Eve Reverse develops and validates sustainable composite materials and manufacturing routes, with a particular focus on natural fibre composites for engineering applications.

Evaluating whether flax, hemp or another natural fibre could work for your product? Eve Reverse can help assess feasibility, compare materials and manufacturing routes, develop and test prototypes, provide life cycle assessment (LCA) insights to support design decisions, and validate the final solution before you commit to production.

Frequently Asked Questions

• Is flax fibre as strong as glass fibre? Flax offers one of the highest specific stiffnesses and tensile strengths among commercially available natural fibres. Because its density (roughly 1.4–1.5 g/cm³) is considerably lower than glass fibre, it can offer an attractive stiffness-to-weight ratio in some applications. Whether it's a suitable substitute for glass fibre depends on the specific load case, environment and design requirements. It isn't a like-for-like replacement in every situation (Baley et al., 2021).

• What's the difference between flax and hemp fibre? Flax typically produces fine, uniform fibres long valued in linen textiles and technical reinforcements. Hemp generally produces more biomass and higher fibre yield per hectare. In practice, the choice is rarely about which fibre is "better" - it depends on the plant variety, growing conditions, extraction method and the requirements of the final product (Bourmaud et al., 2019; Manian et al., 2021).

• Can natural fibre composites handle moisture and outdoor use? Moisture sensitivity is a genuine limitation of plant-fibre composites and needs to be designed for. Moisture uptake can affect dimensional stability and mechanical performance, particularly in humid or outdoor conditions. Resin choice, manufacturing process, component design and protective finishing all play a role in managing this (Scida et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2022).

• Are flax and hemp composites biodegradable or lower-impact than glass fibre? Flax and hemp are renewable, plant-based materials, which is part of their appeal as manufacturers look to reduce reliance on fossil-based inputs. The overall environmental impact of a finished component also depends on the processing route, resin system and end-of-life handling - these need to be assessed for the complete material system rather than assumed from the fibre alone (Gomez-Campos et al., 2021).

• Where are flax and hemp composites used today? Current applications include automotive interior panels, furniture, sports equipment, consumer products and architectural elements - particularly where low weight, vibration damping and appearance matter. Research continues into more demanding structural applications (Yan et al., 2014; Baley et al., 2021).

• Why are flax and hemp becoming more relevant now, after being replaced by synthetic materials? Three trends are driving renewed interest: pressure to reduce dependence on fossil-based materials, a push to strengthen regional (European) supply chains, and growing recognition that the fibres' natural properties - low weight, strength, durability and damping - suit modern technical applications, not just historical ones like rope and linen (European Commission, 2018; Baley et al., 2021).

References

The information in this article is based on peer-reviewed scientific literature, government publications, and recognised industry sources. Additional project examples are drawn from Eve Reverse’s own engineering activities and collaborations.

• Alliance for European Flax-Linen & Hemp (formerly CELC). (2024). European Flax™ and European Hemp™ sector information and production statistics.

• Baley, C., Bourmaud, A., Davies, P., et al. (2021). Eighty years of composites reinforced by flax fibres: A historical review. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 144, 106333.

• Baley, C., Gomina, M., Bréard, J., Bourmaud, A., & Davies, P. (2020). Variability of mechanical properties of flax fibres for composite reinforcement: A review. Industrial Crops and Products, 145, 111984.

• Bourmaud, A., Beaugrand, J., Shah, D. U., et al. (2019). Towards the design of high-performance plant fibre composites: How can we best understand the variability of plant fibre properties? Composites Science and Technology, 171, 109–120.

• Clarke, R. C., & Merlin, M. D. (2013). Cannabis: Evolution and ethnobotany. University of California Press.

• European Commission. (2018). A sustainable bioeconomy for Europe: Strengthening the connection between economy, society and the environment. Updated Bioeconomy Strategy. Publications Office of the European Union.

• Faruk, O., Bledzki, A. K., Fink, H.-P., & Sain, M. (2012). Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibres: 2000–2010. Progress in Polymer Science, 37(11), 1552–1596.

• Gomez-Campos, A., Vialle, C., Rouilly, A., Sablayrolles, C., & Hamelin, L. (2021). Flax fiber for technical textile: A life cycle inventory. Journal of Cleaner Production, 281, 125177.

• Hadiji, H., Assarar, M., Zouari, W., Pierre, F., Behlouli, K., Zouari, B., & Ayad, R. (2020). Damping analysis of nonwoven natural fibre-reinforced polypropylene composites used in automotive interior parts. Polymer Testing, 89, 106692.

• Lu, M. M., Fuentes, C. A., & Van Vuure, A. W. (2022). Moisture sorption and swelling of flax fibre and flax fibre composites. Composites Part B: Engineering, 231, 109538.

• Manian, A. P., Cordin, M., & Pham, T. (2021). Extraction of cellulose fibres from flax and hemp: A review. Cellulose, 28, 8275–8294.

• Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality, Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Policy, & Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management. (2023). Nationale Aanpak Biobased Bouwen. Government of the Netherlands.

• Réquilé, S., Mazian, B., Grégoire, M., et al. (2021). Exploring the dew retting feasibility of hemp in very contrasting European environments: Influence on the tensile mechanical properties of fibres and composites. Industrial Crops and Products, 164, 113337.

• Scida, D., Assarar, M., Poilâne, C., & Ayad, R. (2013). Influence of hygrothermal ageing on the damage mechanisms of flax-fibre reinforced epoxy composites. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 48, 51–58.

• Textile Exchange. (2025). Materials Market Report 2025.

• Yan, L., Chouw, N., & Jayaraman, K. (2014). Flax fibre and its composites – A review. Composites Part B: Engineering, 56, 296–317.

• Zohary, D., Hopf, M., & Weiss, E. (2012). Domestication of plants in the Old World (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.